The war of the roses free essay sample

The War of the Roses. The Prehistory The Prehistory It was in this twelvemonth [ 1411 ] , that Richard Plantagenet was born to Richard, fifth Earl of Cambridge and Anne Mortimer. His male parent was the boy of Edmund, the first Duke of York, who was in bend the 4th boy of Edward III. If Henry VI had died before 1453, the twelvemonth of the birth of Edward, Prince of Wales, so Richard would hold doubtless been crowned King of England, since there was no other baronial ( since the decease of Henry VI s uncle and inheritor Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, who had died in 1447 ) with such a strong claim to the throne at that clip, other than Richard himself. Bing so extremely placed in the royal family, Richard was destined to play a important function in the Government and political relations of England throughout his life-time and in England s personal businesss in France during the ulterior phases of the Hundred Years War. He was appointed Lieutenant of France in 1436. Throughout his service in Europe, he had to pay for the services of his work forces and finance the ground forces in France from his ain personal financess. Although York was a affluent adult male in his ain right, ( York was the exclusive helper of the childless Edmund Mortimer, who had died of pestilence in Ireland in 1425 ) . It was his matrimony to Cicely Neville in 1438 ( who was known as The Rose of Raby ) , girl to Ralph Neville, Earl of Westmoreland and sister of Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury, which had brought him great wealth. Therefore, he was able, albiet unhappily in making so, to fund the English ground forces overseas. By the clip he left France, York had forwarded some # 163 ; 38,000 of his ain money to keep English involvements in France. To add abuse to injury, in 1445 he was replaced as Lieutenant of France by Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset. It is non to be doubted that it was on Somerset s advice ( who was Henry VI cousin, and person Henry trusted more than the Duke of York ) that Henry VI created York Lieutenant of Ireland, which was in world, expatriate by office. Somerset was no uncertainty fearful of Yor k, a fright enhanced by the fact that Somerset, a adult male whom York every bit detested, and a front-runner of Henry VI was forwarded financess to the amount of # 163 ; 25,000 to prolong the male monarch s ground forces in France. Not merely did York detest Somerset because of his favoritism with the male monarch, but he besides detested the fact that he had been given the office he had antecedently held in France and the financess to back up it, despite his inability as a soldier. York s frights over the direction of the run in France was shortly accomplished, as the war began to travel severely for the English. The Duke of Somerset was personally responsible for the resignation of the strategic town of Rouen which later led to the autumn of Normandy to Charles VII of France. Because of this, Somerset became clearly unpopular at place. However, because he retained the male monarch s favor, he maintained his esteemed place at tribunal. In June 1451, Bordeaux in France, and Gascony, were lost to the Gallic. This was black intelligence for the English and the King, Henry VI, took the loss really severely. York in bend, was speedy to fault Somerset for the catastrophe and, with support for the male monarch and hi s disciples at such a low point ( due chiefly to English weaknesss in France ) , York, decided to put on the line all and try to wrest control from the male monarch by force of weaponries and collar the Duke of Somerset, therefore taking him from his place as the male monarch s most senior adviser. Doubtless this move was non merely inspired by York s fright for the behavior of the war in France, but besides because he was every bit fearful that Somerset might take over the really place that York felt was his ain, that of the most likely inheritor to Henry in the absence of the king holding any kids of his ain. Thus York, believing that he had more popular support than he really had, sailed from Ireland and landed in North Wales, gathered his forces and travelled heterosexual for London and the brush at Blackheath. The Wars of the Roses Begin After York s release from detention, there so followed several old ages of comparative peace. However, by the twelvemonth 1453, the political storm clouds were one time once more assemblage over the state. By this twelvemonth, England s ownerships in France had been about lost as the black Hundred Years War had all but come to an terminal. It was this it is said that brought about the first turn of lunacy in Henry VI. What signifier this unwellness took is non recorded, but it seems that it manifested itself in a signifier of palsy. York, with the male monarch incapacitated, was made defender of England and took the chance to seek retaliation on his earlier enemies, viz. the Duke of Somerset, who was sent to the Tower on a revised charge of lese majesty ( for his hapless direction of the war in France ) in September 1453. The Earl of Salisbury, Richard Neville and his eldest boy Richard, Earl of Warwick, besides took the chance afforded by the male monarch s unwellness and, under t he screen of their kinsman s associated state began to seek their retaliation against the Percy household, the Earls of Northumberland, with whom, they had held a long running feud, over the issue of ownership of belongings in Northumberland and Yorkshire. Therefore, England was plunged into a series of minor wars between the land s most powerful Godheads to which the Duke of York, as defender was able to utilize his authorization to the advantage of his household and protagonists. However, this all came to an terminal when the male monarch recovered from his unwellness in January 1455. Somerset was released from the Tower, and instantly formed a natural confederation with Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland ( and Percy s ally in the north Lord Clifford ) , against the Duke of York who was stripped of his powers as defender and his protagonists, viz. the Earl of Salisbury and the Earl of Warwick. With this the conflict lines for the Wars of the Roses were drawn. The treaty between Somerset, Northumberland and Clifford, supported by the male monarch would in subsequently old ages travel by the name of Lancastrians, taken from the household name of the House of Lancaster to which the line of descent of Henry VI was derived. While the followings of the House of York, Warwick, Salisbury and the Duke of York himself became known as the Yorkists. 1455-1464 First St. Albans, Northampton, Wakefield, Mortimer s Cross, Second St. Albans, Towton and Hexham. In May 1455 the queen and Somerset summoned a Council, to which no outstanding Yorkist was invited, and ordered a assemblage of the equals at Leicester to take stairss for the male monarch s safety. York marched south to procure a just hearing from the male monarch, while the tribunal moved towards Leicester, escorted by a big figure of Lords and their considerations. The male monarch and Somerset did non larn of York s actions until they were en path to Leicester. They tried to piece an ground forces, but there was deficient clip ; at twilight on 21 May, when the two sides camped merely 20 stat mis apart, the male monarch s army still consisted of merely his bodyguard and their considerations. Both sides decided to progress against their adversary during the dark, and these Marches became a race for the main town of the country, St. Albans. The male monarch s ground forces arrived there at 7am, and York halted at Key Fields, E of the town, at about the same clip. There followed a intermission of three hours while rapprochement was attempted, York offering to retreat if the male monarch would give up Somerset, whom York considered a treasonist. The male monarch ( i.e. Somerset! ) refused, and York ordered the onslaught ( see map ) . Warwick was to put down a bombardment of pointers in support of wing onslaughts by York and Salisbury. However, these onslaughts were repulsed and Warwick hence ordered his bowmans to concentrate on their ain forepart. He so attacked the centre, broke through to the Chequers, and here established a rallying point. Falling back to forestall their divided forces from being outflanked by Warwick, the Lancastrians weakened their defence of the Sopwell and Shropshire Lanes, and the forces of York and Salisbury about instantly burst into the town. The Lancastrians began to waver, panicked, and broke, to be pursued up St. Peter s Street by the exultant Yorkists. Somerset and some considerations took screen in the Castle Inn while Lord Clifford, with Percy, Harington and some other knights and esquires, fought on outside the hostel. When those outside were slain, Somerset led his work forces in one last charge. He killed four work forces before being felled by an axe. The male monarch, the Duke of Buckingham, and the Earls of Devon and Dorset were captured ; Clifford, Somerset, Stafford, Percy and Harington were amongst those killed. York was appointed Protector in October and Warwick became Captain of Calais, the metropolis which possessed the lone standing ground forces of the male monarch. For the following three old ages at that place was an uneasy peace. York lost the protectorship at the beginning of 1456 and returned to Ireland. Margaret gained control of tribunal and authorities, but Warwick refused to give up Calais to her, and this metropolis therefore became a safety for the Yorkists, from which an onslaught might be launched at any clip. In the late summer of 1459 both sides began build uping once more, and in October York s forces were defeated at Ludford # 8211 ; chiefly due to the perfidy of Andrew Trollope, captain of a organic structure of professional soldiers sent over from Calais by Warwick. York was forced to fly to Ireland once more and his military personnels dispersed. In June 1460 Warwick landed at Sandwich with 2,000 work forces of the Calais fort, accompanied by the Earl of Salisbury and York s boy Edward, Earl of March. The male monarch and queen were at Coventry when they received intelligence of the landing. Hastily garnering an ground forces from his head protagonists # 8211 ; the Percies, Staffords, Beauforts, Talbots and Beaumonts # 8211 ; the male monarch began to process South. However, in the interim the work forces of south-east England had flocked to the criterion of the popular Warwick, and on 2 July he entered London with 5,000 work forces. Merely the Tower, commanded by Lord Scales, held out for the male monarch and, hearing that London had gone over to the Yorkists, the male monarch halted at Northampton and took up a defensive place to expect supports. Hesitating merely to set up a siege force round the Tower, Warwick led his ground forces due norths, geting between Towcester and Northampton on the 9th. Early on the following forenoon 10 July 1460 # 8211 ; he deployed for conflict, but foremost attempted to negociate a colony. At 2pm, no understanding holding proved possible, Warwick gave the order to progress, with the three battles in line astern . It was raining hard as the Yorkists arrived and Edward s battle , dwelling wholly of men-at-arms, made slow advancement over the soppy land. As they came within bow scope they were met by a ferocious bombardment of pointers and this, together with a ditch and bets, prevented the Yorkists from acquiring to shut quarters. At this critical minute Lord Grey all of a sudden displayed Warwick s ragged staff badge and ordered his work forces to put down their arms. Indeed, the work forces of Grey s bid really assisted their enemies over the defences and, one time established within the defences in sufficient Numberss, Edward and Warwick led their men-at-arms behind the male monarch s bowmans in the centre to strike Buckingham in wing and rear. Unable to steer within the narrow confines of the defences, the Lancastrians shortly broke and fled, many being drowned in the shoal but broad river at their dorsums. The Duke of Buckingham, Earl of Shrewbury, Thomas Percy, Lord Beaumont and Lord Egr emont were among the Lancastrian dead. The male monarch was captured once more, taken to London, and compelled to approve a Yorkist authorities. York arrived from Ireland in mid-September and in October put frontward a claim to the throne. The equals rejected his claim ( while Henry lived ) but made him Protector in position of the male monarch s periods of insanity. The queen and her boy, who had remained at Coventry, fled to north Wales, so to the North, where she began to garner a new ground forces. With these forces she overran Yorkshire, and a big figure of Lancastrian protagonists from the West Country began to process across the Midlands to fall in her. York sent his boy Edward, Earl of March, to the Welsh boundary lines to enroll an ground forces and to manage the minor local problems stirred up by the Earl of Pembroke. He left Warwick in London to guarantee the capital s support and guard the male monarch ; and on 9 December he led the Yorkist ground forces due norths to cover with the queen. He took with him his younger boy Edmund and all the heavy weapon so available at the Tower of London. On the 16th York s vaward conflict clashed with the West Countrymen, suffered heavy losingss, and was unable to forestall the Lancastrians from traveling on to fall in the queen. Learning that Margaret s chief force was at Pontefract Castle, York marched to his palace at Sandal, two stat mis south of Wakefield and merely nine from Pontefract. He arrived at Sandal Castle on the 21st and, larning that the queen s ground forces was now about four times every bit legion as his ain, remained in the palace to expect supports under Edward. The Lancastrian forces closed round the palace to forestall forage. On 30 December 1460 half the Lancastrian ground forces advanced against Sandal Castle as if to do an assault, but under screen of this motion the vaward conflict , commanded by the Earl of Wiltshire, and the horse under Lord Roos, unobtrusively took up places in the forests flanking the unfastened Fieldss. York, believing the full Lancastrian ground forces to be before him, and much smaller than he had been told, deployed for unfastened conflict, and led his military personnels straight down the incline from the palace to establish an onslaught on Somerset s line. The Lancastrians fell back before the progress, pulling the Yorkists into the trap, eventually holding to have the charge. The Yorkist charge about shattered Somerset s line and the Lancastrian modesty under Clifford had to be committed to stem the progress. But so Wiltshire and Roos charged from the wings, and the conflict was over. York, his boy Edmund, his two uncles Sir John and Sir Hugh Mortimer, Sir Thomas Neville ( boy of Salisbury ) , Harington, Bourchier and Hastings were among those killed. The Earl of Salisbury was captured, and later beheaded by the Percies because of their feud with the Nevilles. The decease of Richard of York was a terrible blow to the Yorkists ; but Warwick in London and Edward, now Duke of York, in the Welsh Marches, were both raising new ground forcess. In the Welsh Marches, in peculiar, work forces flocked to Edward s streamer to revenge Richard and their ain Godheads who had died with him, and by the terminal of January 1461 Edward had a fair-sized ground forces gathered unit of ammunition Hereford. From here he set out to unify with Warwick, likely at Warwick Castle, in order to hold the queen s March on the capital. However, shortly after get downing out he learned that the Earls of Pembroke and Wiltshire were traveling towards Worcester from the West with a big force and, in order to avoid being caught between two Lancastrian ground forcess, Edward moved due norths 17 stat mis to Mortimer s Cross, non far from Ludlow and merely three and a half stat mis from his ain palace at Wigmore, hereditary place of the Mortimers. Here the River Lugg, fluxing South to fall in the Wye, was bridged for the chief route from cardinal Wales and the Roman route from Hereford, the two roads run intoing close by the span. Edward deployed his ground forces at this of import hamlets and river traversing early on the forenoon of 2 February 1461. The Lancastrians deployed for conflict on the forenoon of the 2nd and advanced against the Yorkist line about midday. After a ferocious battle the Earl of Wiltshire and Ormond succeeded in coercing Edward s right wing back across the route ( see map ) , but at the same clip Pembroke s main conflict was wholly defeated by Edward. Ormond s battle reformed and moved on to the centre to back up Pembroke but, happening him already defeated, for some incomprehensible ground halted and sat down to expect the result of the combat on the other wing. Owen Tudor s battle was the last to go engaged, holding swung right in an effort to go around the Yorkist place. In transporting out this manoeuvre the Lancastrians exposed their ain left wing, and the waiting Yorkists quickly seized the chance to bear down, cutting the Lancastrians in two and dispersing them in all waies. A general retreat by the Lancastrians in the way of Leominstcr followed, rapidly transformed into a bloody mob by the Yorkists. Owen Tudor was captured and subsequently executed. After the conflict of Wakefield the queen s ground forces of borderers, Scots, Welsh and soldier of fortunes had begun to process on London, plundering as it went and go forthing a 30-mile-wide wrapping of ruin in its aftermath: Margaret, whose purpose was now to deliver the male monarch, was unable to pay her ground forces and had promised them the whole of southern England to loot in compensation. London was panicky, and Warwick found himself faced with the job of being unable to raise adequate work forces either to halt the Lancastrian progress or to support the metropolis. Edward s triumph at Mortimer s Cross solved this job, for work forces flocked to Warwick s streamer when intelligence of the conflict reached London on about 10 February ; and on the 12th Warwick was able to go forth London with a force big plenty to try to hold the queen, directing word to Edward to fall in forces every bit shortly as possible. Warwick marched to St. Albans and began to fix a defensive place there with a three-mile forepart excluding the two roads to London which passed through Luton and Hitchin. Withdrawals were besides placed in St. Albans and Sandridge to watch the wings, and in Dunstable to guard the Watling Street attack to St. Albans. The queen left York on 20 January, processing down Ermine Street towards London. At Royston she swung left and moved southwest as if to forestall a junction between Edward and Warwick. On 14 or 15 February the queen received inside informations of Warwick s deployment from Lovelace, who had commanded the Yorkist heavy weapon at Wakefield but who had been spared by the Lancastrians. Margaret allowed the borderers to go on harrying the countryside due south from Hitchin to deviate Warwick s attending, and took the remainder other ground forces on a difficult March South and west past Luton to Dunstable, meaning to follow this with another March against St. Albans from the West, so turning Warwick s defensive line. The queen s ground forces arrived at Dunstable tardily on the 16th, took the Yorkists withdrawal at that place by surprise, and killed or captured every adult male. After a brief arrest the Lancastrians set out on a 12-mile dark March to St. Albans, geting on the south bank of the River Ver before morning. After a short intermission to rest and form an onslaught, at approximately 6am on 17 February 1461 the vaward conflict crossed the river and entered the town. The Yorkists were once more taken by surprise but, as the Lancastrians rushed up George Street towards the bosom of the town, they were halted by a strong withdrawal of bowmans left in St. Albans by Warwick, and finally were driven back to St Michael s church. Shortly afterwards lookouts reported an unguarded entryway through the defences via Folly and Catherine Lanes, and at approximately loam the town fell to the Lancastrians. The male monarch was found in a house in the town. Warwick s defence line had been rendered useless and he was now faced with the undertaking of re-aligning his ground forces in the presence of the enemy. His rearward conflict , stationed by Beech Bottom Ditch, was wheeled to confront South, and Warwick so rode off to convey up the main and vaward conflicts . The Lancastrian ground forces now attacked the Yorkist rearward conflict which, after a long and courageous battle, eventually broke and fled towards the remainder of the ground forces. Warwick was already on his manner to reenforce them with the main conflict , but this now broke up as the runawaies streamed past, fall ining in the general flight. Warwick rode off to convey up his vaward conflict , but on making it he found that Lovelace s withdrawal had deserted to the enemy and the balance was severely shaken. Somehow Warwick managed to organize a new line and held off farther Lancastrian onslaughts until dark, when he managed to untangle about 4,000 of his work forces and March due wests to fall in Edward. Margaret waited nine yearss at St. Albans while negociating the resignation of London, merely 20 stat mis off. London, panicky by the behaviour of the queen s ground forces, which looted St. Albans after the conflict, refused to open its Gatess to the queen and her male monarch. The borderers began to abandon in droves ; and with Edward and Warwick united and progressing quickly from the West, Margaret eventually abandoned her effort on the capital and withdrew to York with the male monarch. Twelve yearss after 2nd St. Albans the united forces of Edward and Warwick entered London: on 4 March Edward was proclaimed male monarch by the Yorkist equals and by the merchandisers and parks of London. Edward set off in chase of Margaret and Henry on 19 March, but his progress guard was defeated by a Lancastrian delaying force at Ferrybridge on the River Aire on the twenty-seventh. At morning on the 28th the Yorkists forced their manner over the span and all that twenty-four hours fought to force back the Lancastrian rearguard towards Towton, making the small town of Saxton by twilight. The following forenoon the queen s ground forces, commanded by Somerset, was seen drawn up less than a mile off ( see map ) . At 9am on 29 March 1461, with heavy snow falling, the two ground forcess advanced towards each other. When they were approximately 300 paces apart the Yorkists halted to dispatch one fusillade of heavy armour-piercing pointers which, aided by a undermentioned air current, hit the Lancastrian line and caused some casualties. The Yorkist bowmans so fell back a short distance. The Lancastrians responded with several fusillades, utilizing the lighter flight arrows non usually used at all except short scope. Impeded by the air current, these pointers fell short by some 50 paces, but the Lancastrians continued to dispatch their pointers until their frissons were empty. The Yorkist bowmans so advanced once more and poured a bombardment of pointers into the Lancastrian ranks. Unable to react, the Lancastrians moved frontward to reach every bit rapidly as possible. The conflict raged all twenty-four hours, but at approximately 3pm Lord Dacres, one of the senior Lancastrian commanding officers, was killed, and at the same clip the Duke of Norfolk s force of several thousand work forces arrived to reenforce the Yorkist right wing. The Lancastrians began to ease off, the relaxation of force per unit area increased to a backdown, and all of a sudden their whole line collapsed. About 12,000 Yorkists were killed or died of lesions and exposure, while some 20,000 Lancastrians were killed, doing Towton the bloodiest conflict of all time fought on English dirt. It was besides the most decisive conflict of the wars, in the very bosom of Lancastrian state, and steadfastly established Edward IV on the throne. The queen, Henry, and their boy Prince Edward fled to Scotland. The first old ages of Edward s reign were pro-occupied with stomping out all staying Lancastrian resistance. Pembroke and Exeter remained at big in Wales, but the Earl of Oxford was executed in 1462 for an attempted landing on the dramatis personae seashore. The majority of the lasting Lancastrians retired to the Scots boundary line with Margaret and Henry, seeking support from Scotland and keeping the powerful boundary line palaces. In April 1464 a Yorkist force under Lord Montagu, Warwick s younger brother and Edward s lieutenant in the North, clashed with a Lancastrian force under the Duke of Somerset at Hedgeley Moor. The two Lancastrian wings, commanded by Lords Hungerford and Roos, quickly fled, but the work forces under Sir Ralph Percy stood fast and were annihilated. Montagu was unable to prosecute, as he was escorting a Scots deputation to York to discourse a peace. Somerset led his forces to Hexham and made cantonment two stat mis south of that town. Equally shortly as Montagu had carried out his mission, he moved due souths to face the Lancastrians once more. Early on on the forenoon of 15 May 1464 Montagu attacked the Lancastrian cantonment, nailing through Somerset s centre with a rapid declivitous charge. Once once more the two wings broke and fled. Somerset was captured and executed, along with Hungerford and Roos, among others. These executings about completed the extinction of the old Lancastrian cabal, and virtually ended Lancastrian opposition ; and even the queen gave up, and fled to Anjou. 1469-1471 Barnet and Tewkesbury. The great northern fastnesss of the Lancastrians # 8211 ; Ainwick, Norham, Bamburgh and Dunstanburgh fell shortly after the conflict of Hexham, and within a twelvemonth Henry VI, who had been concealing in a monastery, was betrayed and placed in the Tower. Apart from Harlech Castle and Berwick-on-Tweed, Edward was now genuinely king of all England. In November 1464 Edward in secret married Elizabeth Woodville, without the consent and against the wants of Warwick ( who was engaged at the clip in seeking to set up a Gallic matrimony for the male monarch ) . Warwick, seeking to presume dictatorial powers over the new male monarch, fell from favour, and Elizabeth s legion relations rose fleetly in rank and office every bit Edward formed his ain Yorkist party: his father-in-law became Earl Rivers, his brother-in-law Lord Scales, Elizabeth s boy by her first matrimony became Earl of Dorset, while old protagonists were besides advanced # 8211 ; William Herbert was made Earl of Pembroke, Humphrey Stafford Earl of Devon, and the Percies were recruited in alliance against the Nevilles by reconstructing to them the earldom of Northumberland. In 1467 Edward openly broke with Warwick by disowning a pact with France and an confederation with Burgundy which Warwick had merely negotiated. Enraged and humiliated, Warwick enlisted the assistanc e of Edward s brother, George of Clarence, and from the security of Calais declared against Edward because of his subjugations. At about this clip Warwick engineered a Neville rise in the North, which began with the alleged rebellion of Robin of Redesdale. When the rise was good under manner Warwick landed in Kent with a force from Calais but, before he could make the scene of operations, the royal ground forces was defeated at Edgecotc in Northamptonshire ( 6 July 1469 ) . Edward was captured and handed over to Warwick, who executed many of Edward s prima protagonists, including Queen Elizabeth s male parent, her brother John, and the freshly created Earls of Pembroke and Devon. Edward was confined for some hebdomads in Middleham Castle, but was released when he agreed to accept new curates nominated by Warwick. But at the first chance Edward took his retaliation. In March 1470 a Lancastrian rebellion occurred in Lincolnshire. Edward gathered a force to stamp down the rise, carefully naming to his criterion all those equals with scores against Warwick or who were non tied to him by household confederations. Edward defeated the Rebels at the conflict of Lose-Coat Field and the Rebels leader, Sir Robert Welles, confessed the rise was portion of a secret plan by Warwick to do Clarence male monarch. Unable to oppose Edward s ground forces, Warwick and Clarence fled to France, where they allied themselves with Margaret and the Lancastrian cause. In September Warwick arranged a lifting in Yorkshire and, every bit shortly as Edward moved north, landed with Clarence and a little force at Dartmouth. Devon rose to back up them, Kent followed suit, and London opened its Gatess. Edward, returning South in a haste, found himself caught between Warwick s turning ground forces in the South and the lifting in the North. His ground forces began to run off, and Edward was forced to take ship at Lynn and flee to the Netherlands. Henry VI was released and restored to the throne, but Margaret did non swear her old enemy Warwick, and refused to go forth France: Prince Edward remained with her. Meanwhile, Clarence began to seek rapprochement with Edward ; and on 15 March 1471, with a organic structure of some 1,500 German and Flemish soldier of fortunes lent to him by the Duke of Burgundy, Edward landed at Ravenspur in the Humber estuary. Marching fleetly due souths, Edward evaded an ground forces under the Duke of Northumberland and reached Nottingham, where he learned that Warwick was garnering an ground forces at Coventry. The Earl of Oxford was at Newark with another ground forces, but Edward managed to steal between them, garnering disciples to his degree Celsius ause all the manner to the capital. The most of import of these was Clarence, who joined him with a force originally raised for the Lancastrian cause. Edward reached London on 11 April, closely followed by the now united ground forcess of Oxford, Northumberland and Warwick, and on 14 April 1471 was fought the conflict of Barnet ( see map ) . The conflict began at morning in a heavy fog, with the right wing of each ground forces overlapping the left wing of the other. Both the Yorkist and Lancastrian left wings were defeated. Consequently both ground forcess swung to a new place, about at right angles to their original lines, and in the fog the Lancastrian right under Oxford blundered into the rear of his ain centre, doing some casualties. Cries of lese majesty rang out, and many of Oxford s work forces now quit the field, followed by some of those from Somerset s main conflict . At this minute Edward charged between Somerset and Warwick with about a 100 equestrians of his modesty. Warwick s work forces easy gave manner, finally interrupting and fleeing, and a general Lancastrian mob so ensued. Warwick, on pes, was cut down and killed. With him died his brother Montagu. On the same twenty-four hours Queen Margaret and Prince Edward landed at Weymouth. Learning of the conflict, the queen marched through the West Country, roll uping work forces and heading for the Lancastrian fastnesss in Wales. Edward, maintaining his ground forces intact, marched from London to forestall this new Lancastrian force from making Wales. Gloucester, with its important first span over the Severn, closed its Gatess to the queen at Edward s petition, and Margaret had no option but to short-circuit the metropolis and travel further up river to Tewkesbury. Here Edward caught up with her on 3 May after a series of forced Marches. The following twenty-four hours # 8211 ; 4 May 1471 # 8211 ; the outnumbered Lancastrians took up a strong place on a incline between two Brookss ( see map ) . The Yorkists deployed some 400 paces off, with their left wing under Richard of Gloucester seemingly in the air . Somerset took his personal bid off to the right to assail Richard in the wing, giving Lord Wenlock orders to progress every bit shortly as he saw Somerset attacking, therefore traping Richard in place. In the event Wenlock failed to progress ; Richard turned to face Somerset, who was now faced by the full Yorkist left ; and at the same clip some 200 spearmen, placed on the utmost wing by Edward to guard against such a move, advanced to assail Somerset in the wing. Somerset s force gave land, so broke and fled. Somerset escaped to face Wenlock, and in a fury slew him with his battleaxe. The main conflict now began to give land, and when Edward s centre began a general progress the Lancastrian ground forces broke and ran. Most of the Lancastrian Lords were captured and slaughtered, among them Prince Edward and Edmund, Duke of Somerset, the last male Beaufort. Queen Margaret was captured and placed in the Tower, where she remained for five old ages until ransomed by her male parent. Henry VI was murdered in the Tower shortly after the conflict. Edward proclaimed his seven-month-old boy Edward Prince of Wales and sent Hastings with a strong force to take ownership of Calais. Richard of Gloucester was rewarded with Warwick s lands and offices, while Clarence received the lands of Courtenay in the West Country and the Lieutenancy of Ireland. 1483-1487 Bosworth, Stoke, Blackheath and Exeter Edward IV died in April 1483 when his boy and inheritor, Edward V, was merely 12. Inevitably rival cabals instantly emerged # 8211 ; the male child male monarch and the tribunal controlled by the queen female parent and her dealingss, and Edward s favourites Lord Hastings and Thomas Lord Stanley, opposed by Richard, Duke of Gloucester, now the most powerful adult male in the land, whom Edward IV had intended should be trustee. Richard acted fleetly. Traveling south, he joined forces with Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham, and seized Edward V en path to London in the attention of Lord Rivers, the queen female parent s brother. Her boy, Dorset, at one time fled the state, while the queen female parent sought sanctuary in Westminster Abbey. Within a month of Edward IV s decease, Richard was Protector of the Realm. In June Hastings was all of a sudden arrested and executed. Two hebdomads subsequently Richard informed Parliament that Edward s matrimony to Elizabeth Woodville was invalid due to an earlier matrimony, and hence Edward V was a asshole # 8211 ; which left Richard the rightful replacement. Richard became Richard III, Lord Rivers was executed, and Edward V and his younger brother Richard, Duke of York, were placed in the Tower. That fall there was a rebellion in the West Country, led by Buckingham, seemingly in confederacy with the exiled Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond and now caput of the House of Lancaster. ( Henry could claim the throne, in right of his female parent, Margaret Beaufort, as lasting male representative of the House of Lancaster, the Beauforts being descended from John of Gaunt. ) Buckingham was supported by the Woodvillcs and Courtenays. Richard rapidly and expeditiously crushed the rebellion, and Buckingham was executed. Henry Tudor withdrew to France, but in 1485, with approximately 3,000 Gallic soldier of fortunes, he landed in Pembrokeshire, where his uncle Jasper was earl. He marched rapidly through Wales and the Marches, picking up considerable support on the manner, and confronted Richard in conflict for the throne at Bosworth in Leicestershire on 22 August 1485. The two chief forces drew up confronting each other but both Henry Tudor and Richard III looked uneasily for support from the forces of the two brothers Stanley: those of Sir Willaim Stanley were seeable to the north-west of the battleground, and those of Lord Stanley to the sou-east. The conflict commenced without the Stanleys, the opposing forces both doing a command for Ambien Hill. Richard s military personnels reached the ridge foremost, and his vaward conflict deployed on it in a defensive place. The main conflict followed, while the rearward conflict was ordered to take place on the left of this line every bit shortly as possible, and to confront due South. Henry advanced to prosecute in an archery affaire dhonneur at long scope, and Richard looked in vain for his rearward conflict : the Earl of Northumberland had decided to avoid action until the Stanleys showed their custodies. As the bowmans began to run out of pointers, the two ground forcess advanced to melee, and merely now did the Stanleys move # 8211 ; to assail both wings of Richard s line, while Northumberland remained immobile. Richard mounted, collected his escort around him, and sit into the centre of the enemy, purpose on killing Henry Tudor or deceasing like a male monarch. Unhorsed in the fen, Richard was shortly overwhelmed by superior Numberss and killed. The conflict ceased when his decease became known, and his ground forces melted off with small or no chase. Lord Stanley took the circlet bespeaking Richard s rank from the dead male monarch s helmet and, puting it on Henry Tudor s caput, proclaimed him King Henry VII. In the early old ages of his reign Henry VII was in continual danger, and it is erroneous to see Bosworth as the terminal of the Wars of the Roses. The first of the male monarch s problems was a lifting in 1486 in the North Riding of Yorkshire, where Richard III had been really popular. It was led by Lord Lovel, Richard s Chamberlain and admiral, but the Rebels dispersed when Henry marched against them with a big force. Lovel fled to Flanders. In May 1487 Lovel landed in Ireland with some 2,000 Swiss and 1,500 German soldier of fortunes, supplied by Margaret of Burgundy and commanded by the Swiss captain Martin Schwarz, accompanied by John, Earl of Lincoln, and about 200 other exiled Yorkists. This rebellion was in the name of Edward, Earl of Warwick, boy of Clarence, but as he was a captive in the Tower a double named Lambert Simnel played his portion. The encroachers were welcomed by most of the Irish Godheads and Clarence was crowned Edward VI at Dublin. Within a few hebdomads Lincoln had recruited some 4,000 # 8211 ; 5,000 Irish soldiers under Thomas Fitzgerald. These forces now sailed for England, set downing in Lancashire. However, few Yorkists had joined the encroachers by the clip Henry VII brought them to conflict at Stoke, near Newark, on 17 July 1487. Despite ferocious opposition by the foreign mercenaries the Rebels were routed, Lincoln and Fitzgerald killed, and Simnel captured. Lovel disappeared. For the following four old ages Henry enjoyed a comparatively peaceable reign, but so Yorkist confederacies began one time more to inspissate. Ever since 1483 it had been rumored that one or both of Edward IV s boies had escaped from the Tower: Henry Tudor claimed they had been murdered by Richard HI, but no organic structures had of all time been found or displayed as cogent evidence of their decease. One Perkin Warbeck, a citizen of Tournai, was chosen for his similarity of visual aspect to Edward IV, and declared to be Richard, Duke of York. He gained some support in Ireland, and was recognized as York by Margaret of Burgundy and Maximilian of Austria. For two old ages Warbeck followed the Imperial tribunal while his frequenters intrigued with English malcontents ; but in the winter of 1494-5 Henry s undercover agents infiltrated the confederacy and big Numberss of the plotters were arrested, including Lord Fitz Walter and Sir William Stanley. The latter was beheaded, as were several others, while the balance were hanged or imprisoned. However, in July 1495 Warbeck sailed from Flanders with 2,000 expatriates and German soldier of fortunes. He attempted to set down at Deal, but his vanguard was destroyed by Kentish levies and he drew off and made for Ireland. Henry had anticipated such a move, and had already sent to Ireland Sir Edward Poynings, who had suppressed the Irish protagonists of Warbeck. Warbeck landed at Munster, but merely the Earl of Desmond came to his support. Unable to confront Poynings forces, Warbeck sailed to Scotland. With James IV he raided Northumberland in 1496, but a Pretender backed by Scots lances was non acceptable to the English borderers, and non one adult male rallied to the Yorkist streamer. However, discontent over the revenue enhancements imposed to pay for the war with Scotland did take to rioting in the south-east counties, and in Cornwall unfastened rebellion broke out. A rebel ground forces marched on Eondon, brushing over five counties unopposed and roll uping recruits en path, and was merely stopped by a difficult battle at Blackheath. Warbeck, hearing of the rise, landed in Devon in August. Gathering together 8,000 Rebels, he marched on Exeter. The metropolis closed its Gatess against him and, after an effort to beleaguer the metropolis, Warbeck had to process off to face a royal ground forces dispatched to alleviate Exeter. When he reached Taunton Warbeck found his followings so dispirited that catastrophe was inevitable. He took sanctuary on the abbey of Beaulieu, and subsequently confessed his fraud in exchange for his life. In 1498 Warbeck escaped from the Tower but was recaptured and thenceforth confined in a keep. The following twelvemonth he planned another flight, together with the unfortunate Edward of Clarence, but undercover agents in the Tower betrayed this. Henry allowed the secret plan to continue about to completion, so had both Edward and Warbeck executed for be aftering rebellion. The last existent combat of the Wars of the Roses had taken topographic point at Blackheath and the besieging of Exeter, but Clarence had been a true male inheritor of the House of Plantagenet and all the clip he lived he was a menace to the House of Tudor. His decease truly marked the terminal of the Wars of the Roses, and thenceforth Henry VII # 8217 ; s reign was peaceable apart from a few minor and ineffectual secret plans by the exiled Edmund, Earl of Suffolk, younger brother of John, Earl of Lincoln, and the last possible Yorkist claimant to the throne of England. Appendix 1 Armies In 1341 Edward III had revolutionized the construction of European ground forcess by establishing in England a system of written apprenticed contracts between the Crown and outstanding military leaders. Under this system the military leaders, or captains and lieutenants , contracted with the male monarch to supply an in agreement figure of work forces for military service, assuring to convey them to a topographic point of assembly by a certain day of the month. The indentation set out exactly how long the work forces would hold to function, their rate of wage, duties and privileges. The captains were responsible for paying these work forces, the male monarch giving securities to refund the money at a ulterior day of the month. These captains raised their companies by doing a series of similar contracts with knights and man-at-arms, once more qualifying the footings of service and the types of soldiers they would be expected to lend. The captains normally sought these sub-contractors amongst their friends, kinsmen, renters and neighbours. These companies, composed wholly of voluntaries, created in consequence a royal standing ground forces ; for the work forces were professional soldiers who, although raised, led and paid by their captains, regarded themselves foremost as English soldiers, owing commitment to their male monarch and contending merely his enemies. Inevitably, many of the most powerful captains were of the aristocracy, for they had the place at tribunal, the wealth, and the connexions to raise big contingents. In order to be able to fulfill at one time any petition by the male monarch for a company, such Godheads often maintained a lasting force, undertaking their sub-contractors for life with rentes. These work forces frequently held offices ( such as Chamberlain or steward ) in the baron s family or on his estates, and likely provided in their bend the cardinal contingents in his company. This system was introduced to cover with the demand for expeditionary forces to occupy France during the Hundred Years War, and the demand to keep lasting royal forts in the palaces and towns across the channel. But it had the consequence of making big forces commanded by the great barons, and during the class of the Hundred Years War these barons became virtually junior-grade male monarchs within their ain spheres: the great northern households of Percy and Neville, for illustration, fought each other in the Wars of the Roses as much for domination in the North as for who should command the authorities of all England. The three greatest landholders of the 2nd half of Henry VI s reign were the Earl of Warwick and the Dukes of Buckingham and York. Humphrey Stafford ( died 1460 ) , 1st Duke of Buckingham, had a personal cortege frequently knights and 27 esquires, many of whom were drawn from the Staffordshire aristocracy. These work forces were paid rentes to retain their trueness ( hence retainers ) , the best-paid in Buckingham s cortege being Sir Edward Grey ( died 1457 ) who was retained for life in 1440 at # 163 ; 40 per annum. Two knights ( Sir Richard Vernon and Sir John Constable ) received rentes of # 163 ; 20 potential energy, but # 163 ; 10 was the customary rente for a knight, with esquires paid from # 163 ; 10 to # 163 ; 40 Markss per annum. These knights and esquires were the subcontractors, and each would hold provided a contingent of bowmans and men-at-arms. When their contingents were amalgamated, considerable ground forcess could be gathered. For illustration, in January 1454, 2,000 badges of the Stafford knot were produced for distribution to Buckingham s work forces ; in 1469 the Duke of Norfolk fielded 3,000 work forces and some cannon ; while a great soldier and solon of the ability and aspiration of Warwick would hold been able to number on 1000s of work forces scattered over no fewer than 20 shires. Note the predomination of bowmans. The modern-day Paston letters give a good thought of the value of the longbowman during the Wars of the Roses. When Sir John Paston was about to go for Calais, he asked his brother to seek to enroll four bowmans for him: Likely work forces and carnival conditioned and good bowmans and they shall hold 4 Markss by twelvemonth and my livery , ( i.e. they were to be lasting considerations, on rentes ) . These were ordinary bowmans, as opposed to an elite or de maison bowman who would function for good in the family troop of a great Godhead. Warwick considered such work forces to be deserving two ordinary soldiers # 8211 ; even English 1s! In 1467 Sir John Howard hired such an bowman, offering him # 163 ; 10 a twelvemonth # 8211 ; the rente paid to dub # 8211 ; plus two gowns and a house for his married woman. As an excess incentive he gave the adult male 2s. 8d. , two doublets deserving 10s. and a new gown ( a term frequently applied to the livery coat ) . When Sir John bought himself a new bow, for which he paid 2s. , he bought for this elect archer four bows bing 5s. 11.5d. each, a new instance, a shot baseball mitt, bowstrings, and a bundle of pointers which cost 5s. : at that monetary value they were likely the best mark arrows available. Edward IV s prima captains for his 1475 expedition to France had the undermentioned corteges: Duke of Clarence 10 knights 1,000 bowmans Duke of Gloucester 10 knights 1,000 bowmans Duke of Norfolk 2 knights 300 bowmans Duke of Suffolk 2 knights 300 bowmans Duke of Buckingham 4 knights 400 bowmans This contract system still existed in the mid-15th century, and the terminal of the Hundred Years War in 1453 flooded England with big Numberss of work forces who had no trade other than that of soldier. Returning to England, these work forces now assumed the facet of soldier of fortunes, unemployed and troublesome. Bored and hungry, they thirstily sought employment with the great barons. Such big private ground forcess were highly unsafe to the male monarch. Missing a standing ground forces of his ain, he could now merely command unruly or even unpatriotic barons by utilizing the private ground forcess of those barons who remained loyal. Of class, loyal barons were rewarded with valuable offices and huge estates # 8211 ; which enabled them to engage even larger ground forcess until, as with Warwick, they became powerful plenty to try the overthrow of their helper. This failing in the royal authorization led to corruptness in high offices, and particularly in the bench system. Whenever the involvements of a landholder were involved in a legal instance, rival organic structures of armed work forces, have oning the liveries and badges of the Godheads who maintained them, would sit into the county town and payoff or intimidate justice and jury. During the regency of Henry VI s reign the legal system eventually collapsed, and the barons began to decide their wrangles over land and heritages by doing war against each other: might was right, and it became platitude for inheritresss to be abducted, minor Godheads to be imprisoned or even murdered, and for evidence to be procured by graft or menace. Since justness was no longer gettable by just agencies, many of the beefeater husbandmans and smaller landholders of the lesser aristocracy now turned to the barons for their personal protection and for the protection of their lands and rights. This led to the polarisation, which is such a characteristic of the Wars of the Roses. The beefeaters and lesser aristocracy entered into another signifier of contract, known as livery and care , whereby they undertook to have on the baron s livery # 8211 ; i.e. a adventitia in his colourss and bearing his family badge # 8211 ; and to contend for him in times of demand. In return they received his protection whenever they needed it. From the above can be seen that an army of the Wars of the Roses might dwell of a baron s personal or family military personnels ( or bodyguard # 8211 ; normally of knights, sergeants and bowmans ) , plus his renters, together with paid soldier of fortunes or contract military personnels # 8211 ; both English and foreign specializers such as artillerymans and manus artillerymans # 8211 ; and livery and care work forces who were unpaid but who had a personal interest in the combat. The lone forces under the male monarch s personal bid were his escort of knights and sergeants and the big, professional organic structure of work forces who formed the royal fort at Calais. Edward IV besides had a lasting escort of bowmans, and one of Henry VII s first actions on prehending the throne was to establish the Yeomans of the Guard, a organic structure of some 2,000 bowmans under a captain. These first saw active service in 1486, when they were used in the suppression of northern Rebels. Finally, in times of great demand, the male monarch might besides utilize Committees of Array to name out the local reserves. In theory the male monarch s functionaries chose the best-armed work forces from each small town and town to function the male monarch for up to 40 yearss, the work forces s commissariats being provided by their community. In pattern, the male monarch s authorization was often misused, and great landholders frequently sent letters to the lesser landholders and councils of towns where they had influence, reminding those in authorization of past favours and suggesting at benefits yet to come. An illustration is given in the modern-day Stonor letters and documents for the Oxfordshire half-hundred of Ewelme, which provided from its 17 small towns a sum of 85 soldiers, 17 of whom were bowmans. Eweime itself produced six work forces: Richard Slythurst, a harness [ i.e. armoured ] and able to make the male monarch service with his bow. Thomas Staunton [ the constable ] , John Hoime, whole harness and both able to make the male monarch service with a measure. John Tanner, a harness and able to make the male monarch service with a measure. John Pallying, a harness and non able to have on it [ presumptively it did non suit him ] . Roger Smith, no harness, an able adult male and a good bowman . Other work forces without harness are described as able with a staff. Muster axial rotations are another beginning of such information. The muster on 4 September 1457 before the male monarch s functionaries at Bridport, Dorset, shows that the standard equipment expected was a salade, doodly-squat, blade, shield and sticker. In add-on, about two-thirds of the work forces had bows and a bundle or half a bundle of pointers. There was a scattering of other arms # 8211 ; poleaxes, glaives, measures, lances, axes and staffs ; and some uneven pieces of armor # 8211 ; byrnies, gantlets, and leg harness. Two work forces besides had pavises, and the functionaries recommended more pavises be made available. In May 1455 the city manager of Coventry was ordered by royal signet missive to provide a cortege for the male monarch. The town council decided to provide a 100 work forces with bows, knuckleboness and salades, and a captain was elected to take them. The corteges supplied for Edward IV s expedition to France are divided into lances in the Continental mode, but it is most improbable that the forces engaged in the Wars of the Roses were of all time officially divided in this mode. Rather they were grouped by arm and armor, by companies and under the streamers of their captains, and grouped into vaward , main and rearward conflicts under the criterion of a major figure. The ground forces as a whole would frequently be commanded by the taking political figure, assisted by military advisors. In the instance of the male monarch s ground forcess the commander-in-chief would be the lieutenant or captain of the part: officers such as the Warden of the Marches, Lieutenant of Ireland, or Lieutenant of the North, the latter station being granted to Fauconberg in 1461 and to Warwick in 1462. Many of the commanding officers, peculiarly at company degree, were non knights but experient soldiers, though many of them were later knighted on the field of conflict. Lovelace was merely an esquire, but rose to be Captain of Kent through his military accomplishments. Trollope was another soldier who rose to high bid, and was rewarded for his services by a knighthood at Second St. Albans. Men such as Trollope were often the military encephalons or staff officers behind the barons who led the battles . On the other manus, constables of towns played a cardinal function in enrolling contingents, and they may frequently hold commanded companies, as may sheriffs. Such work forces may non hold had any military accomplishment. Although the wars started with little ground forcess of experient soldiers, as clip went on the proportion of veterans diminished and, by and large talking, the ground forcess had deficient coherence for luxuriant tactics: most conflicts began with an archery affaire dhonneur, which tended to call off out the value of the longbow, followed by a huge and contused scrimmage on pes. The commanding officer of an ground forces could make little one time the scrimmage commenced, though he might keep back a little mounted modesty under his personal bid, or detach a formation prior to the conflict to utilize in an outflanking manoeuvre. Large Numberss of the military personnels were mounted # 8211 ; non merely the knights and esquires, but many of the men-at-arms. Some of these mounted foot were used as mounted lookouts, wing guards and the similar, but apart from an occasional mounted modesty of merely 100 work forces or so, the ground forcess dismounted to make conflict, all Equus caballuss being sent to the rear with the luggage. Chiefly this was because of the arms used and the facts that few mounted work forces were sufficiently experienced to contend efficaciously on horseback. However, the fact that many work forces of all weaponries were mounted did be given to take to the formation of particular vanguards of all-mounted military personnels, who were used to spearhead motion prior to a conflict. Because of the fright of perfidy, it was indispensable that the major commanding officers fight on pes to bespeak their willingness to stand and decease with their work forces. It was for this ground that so many of the Lords were so easy killed or captured one time their ground forces was defeated. The mounted militias hence tended to be composed of lesser knights or escorts, and were led by minor commanding officers, such as Sir John Grey of Codnor, an experient soldier but a knight of low rank and place, who led the Lancastrian horse modesty at Second St. Albans. Appendix 2 Characters. Henry V ( 1387 1422 ) King of England Old ages lived:1387 1422Old ages ruled:1413 1422Son of:Henry IV and Mary de BohunMarried to:Catherine de ValoisChilds:Henry VI Henry V, a member of the House of Lancaster, was crowned male monarch in 1413 at the age of 26. Henry spent most of his reign candidacy in France in order to recover districts claimed by his ascendants. The high spot of his three invasions of France ( 1415, 1417-1421, and 1422 ) was the Battle of Agincourt fought on October 25, 1415 during the Hundred Year s War. In a span of a few short hours, Henry crushed a much larger Gallic ground forces go forthing him in control of Northern France. Henry died at the age of 35 of an unknown unwellness, go forthing the Crown to his infant boy, Henry VI. Richard III, King of England 1483 1485 Old ages lived:1452 1485Old ages ruled:1483 1485Son of:Richard, Duke of York, and Cecily NevilleMarried to:Anne Beauchamp Neville ( 1472 )Childs:Edward, Prince of Wales Richard III, the younger brother of Edward IV, was made duke of Gloucester at age nine. He fough for Edward at the conflicts of Barnet and Tewkesbury in 1471. When Edward died in 1483 he took control of Edwards inheritors, Edward V and his brother Richard. The immature brothers were held in the Tower of London and murdered in June 1483. Richard III was crowned male monarch that twelvemonth. He was killed by Henry VII at the conflict of Bosworth Field in 1485. Appendix 3 Genealogies House of Lancaster The Lancastarian claim to the throne was via Edward III s 3rd boy John of Gaunt. In October 1460, an Act of Accord designated that the royal sequence would travel to the house of York after Henry VI s decease. The houses of Lancaster and York were united when Henry VII married the Elizabeth of York, girl of Edward IV. Sons ofEdward III ( 1312-1377 )